Literature Review
Sharing the Stage: How Constructivism Helps Students
Transfer Knowledge into Practical Application.
By
Debbie Moon
Pepperdine University
“Tell me and I’ll forget; show me and I may remember; involve me and I’ll understand.”
Chinese proverb
Introduction
Much of today’s curricula have emphasized memory rather than understanding. Students are expected to
memorize facts and most tests assess the student’s ability to remember the facts learned rather than understanding
the information (Bransford et al, 2000, pg. 8).
By limiting the opportunities to understand, students are unable to transfer learned facts to authentic
situations. To more effectively explore the issues surrounding the transference of cognitive knowledge into practical
application, a subset of literature has been selected based on its relevance to the following: cognitive knowledge; practical application; and learning theories on how to transfer cognitive knowledge into practical application.
Cognitive Knowledge
Cognition is defined as the act of knowing, and cognitive psychology is the study of all human activities related to knowledge. These activities include attention, creativity, memory, perception, problem solving, thinking, and the use of language.
In the last three or four decades the revolution in the study of the mind has had important implications for education. Cognitive science, from it’s inception, has approached learning from multiple perspectives that include neuroscience, philosophy, linguistics, developmental psychology, anthropology, and several branches of psychology (Norman, 1980; Newell and Simon, 1972). In the most general sense, the current view of learning is that people construct new knowledge and understanding based on the interplay between what is already known (prior knowledge) and the nature of their new experiences (Piaget, 1952, Vygotsky, 1962).
With education reform, much of the current pedagogy is now based on “constructivism” (Russell, 1999). Constructivism is a learning theory that suggests that we understand the world through cognitive structuring (Piaget, 1952) and through reflecting on our experiences (Dewey, 1916). Constructivism suggests that learning is a search for meaning through cognitive restructuring. Learning is understanding and its focus on the process of knowing (Piaget, 1978, Vygotsky, 1978).
Constructivist learning theories derive from Piaget’s theory of intellectual development. Understanding the role of experience in school learning come from Dewey’s seminal work on how to structure learning experiences in schools.
Cognitive Structures, Learning and Development
Jean Piaget was one of the most renowned researchers in the area of developmental psychology during the 20th century. Piaget was mainly interested in the biological influences and cognitive experiences that result in the construction of knowledge. He described that intelligence, as a form of adaptation, wherein knowledge is constructed by each individual through the supportive processes of assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration (Piaget, 1947). Assimilation involves integration of new events into preexisting cognitive structures. Accommodation is changing existing structures to match the new information. The balance between the two creates an equilibrium that enables the learner to construct new mental schemes to understand reality. There are many types of equilibrium that vary with the levels of development and the problems to be solved (Lavatelli, 1973).
Learners need to explore, to manipulate, to experiment, to question, and to search out answers for themselves – activity is essential. Piaget’s theory is founded on the idea that the developing child actively and adaptively organizes information into groups of interrelated ideas called schemes or concepts. When learners respond to physical experiences within his or her environment, they must either assimilate it into an existing scheme or create an entirely new scheme to deal with (Wadsworth, 1996).
Piaget argued that intellectual development occurs in four distinct stages (Evans, 1973). During the sensori-motor stage (birth – 2 years old, Piaget observed that intelligence was demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited, but developing, because it is based on experiences and physical interactions. Children transform reflect behaviors into skills and abilities such as looking, sucking, grasping, moving, and listening. The preoperational stage (toddler and early childhood) is where “thought” emerges in the form of symbols, which are based on their concrete experiences with the world. Intelligence forms through the use of symbols, language skills, and memory and imagination. During the concrete operations stage (elementary and early adolescence, intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Children are able to use deductive reasoning and can differentiate their perspective form that of other people. As children develop into the formal operation stage (adolescence ad adulthood) intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Adolescents begin to establish whole systems of belief and can engage in more reflective reasoning.
Piaget (1973, pg. 20) said, “to understand is to discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery, and such conditions must be complied with if in the future individuals are to be formed who are capable of production and creativity and not simply repetition.” Learning is much more meaningful if the child is allowed to operate on the world rather than listen to a teacher lecture. Effective instruction from a Piaget perspective would involve having the teacher provide students with materials, situations, and occasions that allow them to create new understanding. This educational approach is consistent with the work of John Dewy who emphasizes the experiential aspects of learning.
Learning, Experience, and Schooling
Dewey’s learning theory focuses on how people learn and the nature of knowledge. Dewey was an American philosopher during the late ninetieth and early twentieth centuries. He began his career as a high school teacher developing into a Hegelian idealist. Over time, Dewey moved away from idealism and chose an “experimentalism” approach to learning (Craig, 2008). This approach is about how learners construct knowledge for themselves; constructing meaning equals learning. Dewey believed that learning is the result of our reflections on our experiences; as we strive to make sense of them. Dewey said, “to learn from experience is to make a backward and forward connection between what we do to things and what we enjoy or suffer from things in consequence. In this situation, doing becomes trying; an experiment with the world to find out what it is like; the undergoing becomes instruction - discovery of the connection of things. That there is an intimate and necessary relation between the processes of actual experience and education” (Dewey, 1938, pg. 20).
Dewey posed the following questions,
People learn to learn or develop metacognitive skills as they learn. Learning consists both of constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning. Through our encounters with the world and our reflections upon theses experiences, our current understandings of the world are transformed so that things make more sense. Our understandings become broader and more coordinated, helping us to gain greater meaning from our experiences (Russell, 1999). The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental; it happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning but it is not sufficient. Dewey suggests that schooling needs to provide activities that engage the mind as well as the hands. Dewey called this reflective activity.
Dewey described learning as a social activity; our learning is intimately associated with our connection with peers and teachers. “Learning is contextual; we do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract land of the mind separate form the rest of our lives; we learn in relationship to what else we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears” (Dewey, 1938, pg. 38).
One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on (Dewey, 1938). The more we know, the more we can learn. Therefore, any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the learner must provide a path into the subject for the learner based on that learner’s previous knowledge. Dewey asserts that for significant learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them, try them out, play with them and use them in authentic situations (Dewey, 1916).
Modern Schooling and Learning
There is widespread concern about the failures of our schools and our society to help students learn to think more effectively, and to help them develop effective problem solving, reasoning and learning skills (Bransford, Goldman, & Vye, 1991). One area of concern is the nations poor test scores and the need to teach thinking skills (Carpenter, 1980). Research has shown poor performance on the simplest word problems even when the student had memorized facts form their textbooks (Vanderbuilt, 1990). Many argue that the current curricula of memorization of facts and the acquisition of isolated sub skills that are learned out of context result in knowledge that cannot be applied to authentic situations (Brown et al, 1989).
Alternatives to learning out of context material and fact memorization include an emphasis on generating or constructing learning around authentic tasks that often involve group discussions (Brown, et al., 1989). An authentic task is defined as the relationship between the learning and the social situation in which it occurs (Lave, Wenger, 2005, pg. 14). The practical application of the lesson is significant, purposeful, and helps the student understand how it is applied outside of the textbook. “The constructivist view of learning is a constructive process in which the learner is building an internal representation of knowledge and a personal interpretation of experience” (Duffy, & Jonassen, 1992, pg. 21). These researchers suggest that students today need to focus on learning skills that include critical thinking and problem solving, creativity and innovation, and communication and collaboration (21stcenturyskills.org). So how do we take cognitive knowledge and transfer it to practical applications?
Learning in and through Social Contexts
Lave & Wenger are social anthropologist with a strong interest in social theory, and suggests that learning is embedded within activity, context, and culture. Much of their work has focused on the re-conceiving of learning, learners, and educational institutions in terms of social practice (Wenger, 1998). In contrast with most classrooms learning activities that involve abstract knowledge, which is, and out of context, learning is situated (Lave, & Wenger, 1991). Learning often takes place at the edges of the community through participation to gain membership and Lave and Wenger (1991) call this a process of “legitimate peripheral participation.” Knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts, settings, and situations that would normally involve that knowledge. Social interaction and collaboration are essential components of situated learning; learners become involved in a “community of practice” which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired (Lave, & Wenger, 1991). As the beginner or novice moves from the periphery of a community to its center, he or she becomes more active and engaged within the culture and eventually assumes the role of an expert (Lave, et al, 1991). Situated learning is related to Vygotsky’s notion of learning through social development.
Lave and Wenger state the following important points of the situated learning theory (legitimate peripheral participation),
Summary
Learning, especially in the school setting, is often faced with tasks that do not have apparent meaning or logic and has emphasized memory rather than understanding. Constructivism is a pedagogical view that can be applied to most if not all learning goals (Duffy, & Jonassen, 1992). A constructivist environment emphasizes that each learner through his or her own learning experience constructs knowledge (Dewey, 1938). Additionally there is a focus on the authenticity in any learning environment or process results from presenting “a range of opportunities and challenges in which members of a community could assume different roles and learn through negotiation and interaction about how others perform their roles” (Allen, 1991).
Situated learning and constructivism are mutually supportive of each other. Learning is doing therefore, students need to be given activities that allow them to collaborate and utilize the information being presented in class. The discussion board is a collaborative tool that has been shown to provide an avenue for learners to evaluate, analyze and reflect on new knowledge (Friesen, 2004). Learning is successful when students can demonstrate conceptual understanding through practical application. The literature suggest that a constructivist learning theory would be most relevant when your educational goal is the transfer of cognitive knowledge into practical application.
Much of today’s curricula have emphasized memory rather than understanding. Students are expected to
memorize facts and most tests assess the student’s ability to remember the facts learned rather than understanding
the information (Bransford et al, 2000, pg. 8).
By limiting the opportunities to understand, students are unable to transfer learned facts to authentic
situations. To more effectively explore the issues surrounding the transference of cognitive knowledge into practical
application, a subset of literature has been selected based on its relevance to the following: cognitive knowledge; practical application; and learning theories on how to transfer cognitive knowledge into practical application.
Cognitive Knowledge
Cognition is defined as the act of knowing, and cognitive psychology is the study of all human activities related to knowledge. These activities include attention, creativity, memory, perception, problem solving, thinking, and the use of language.
In the last three or four decades the revolution in the study of the mind has had important implications for education. Cognitive science, from it’s inception, has approached learning from multiple perspectives that include neuroscience, philosophy, linguistics, developmental psychology, anthropology, and several branches of psychology (Norman, 1980; Newell and Simon, 1972). In the most general sense, the current view of learning is that people construct new knowledge and understanding based on the interplay between what is already known (prior knowledge) and the nature of their new experiences (Piaget, 1952, Vygotsky, 1962).
With education reform, much of the current pedagogy is now based on “constructivism” (Russell, 1999). Constructivism is a learning theory that suggests that we understand the world through cognitive structuring (Piaget, 1952) and through reflecting on our experiences (Dewey, 1916). Constructivism suggests that learning is a search for meaning through cognitive restructuring. Learning is understanding and its focus on the process of knowing (Piaget, 1978, Vygotsky, 1978).
Constructivist learning theories derive from Piaget’s theory of intellectual development. Understanding the role of experience in school learning come from Dewey’s seminal work on how to structure learning experiences in schools.
Cognitive Structures, Learning and Development
Jean Piaget was one of the most renowned researchers in the area of developmental psychology during the 20th century. Piaget was mainly interested in the biological influences and cognitive experiences that result in the construction of knowledge. He described that intelligence, as a form of adaptation, wherein knowledge is constructed by each individual through the supportive processes of assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration (Piaget, 1947). Assimilation involves integration of new events into preexisting cognitive structures. Accommodation is changing existing structures to match the new information. The balance between the two creates an equilibrium that enables the learner to construct new mental schemes to understand reality. There are many types of equilibrium that vary with the levels of development and the problems to be solved (Lavatelli, 1973).
Learners need to explore, to manipulate, to experiment, to question, and to search out answers for themselves – activity is essential. Piaget’s theory is founded on the idea that the developing child actively and adaptively organizes information into groups of interrelated ideas called schemes or concepts. When learners respond to physical experiences within his or her environment, they must either assimilate it into an existing scheme or create an entirely new scheme to deal with (Wadsworth, 1996).
Piaget argued that intellectual development occurs in four distinct stages (Evans, 1973). During the sensori-motor stage (birth – 2 years old, Piaget observed that intelligence was demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited, but developing, because it is based on experiences and physical interactions. Children transform reflect behaviors into skills and abilities such as looking, sucking, grasping, moving, and listening. The preoperational stage (toddler and early childhood) is where “thought” emerges in the form of symbols, which are based on their concrete experiences with the world. Intelligence forms through the use of symbols, language skills, and memory and imagination. During the concrete operations stage (elementary and early adolescence, intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Children are able to use deductive reasoning and can differentiate their perspective form that of other people. As children develop into the formal operation stage (adolescence ad adulthood) intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Adolescents begin to establish whole systems of belief and can engage in more reflective reasoning.
Piaget (1973, pg. 20) said, “to understand is to discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery, and such conditions must be complied with if in the future individuals are to be formed who are capable of production and creativity and not simply repetition.” Learning is much more meaningful if the child is allowed to operate on the world rather than listen to a teacher lecture. Effective instruction from a Piaget perspective would involve having the teacher provide students with materials, situations, and occasions that allow them to create new understanding. This educational approach is consistent with the work of John Dewy who emphasizes the experiential aspects of learning.
Learning, Experience, and Schooling
Dewey’s learning theory focuses on how people learn and the nature of knowledge. Dewey was an American philosopher during the late ninetieth and early twentieth centuries. He began his career as a high school teacher developing into a Hegelian idealist. Over time, Dewey moved away from idealism and chose an “experimentalism” approach to learning (Craig, 2008). This approach is about how learners construct knowledge for themselves; constructing meaning equals learning. Dewey believed that learning is the result of our reflections on our experiences; as we strive to make sense of them. Dewey said, “to learn from experience is to make a backward and forward connection between what we do to things and what we enjoy or suffer from things in consequence. In this situation, doing becomes trying; an experiment with the world to find out what it is like; the undergoing becomes instruction - discovery of the connection of things. That there is an intimate and necessary relation between the processes of actual experience and education” (Dewey, 1938, pg. 20).
Dewey posed the following questions,
- “How many students acquired special skills by means of automatic drill so that the power of judgment and capacity to act intelligently in new situations was limited?
- How many lost the impetus to learn because of the way in which learning was experienced?
- How many came to associate the learning process with ennui and boredom?
- How many found what they did learn was so foreign to the situations of life outside the school as to five them no power of control over the latter?
- How many came to associate books with dull drudgery, so that they were “conditioned” to all but flashy reading matter?” (Dewey, 1938, pg. 20).
People learn to learn or develop metacognitive skills as they learn. Learning consists both of constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning. Through our encounters with the world and our reflections upon theses experiences, our current understandings of the world are transformed so that things make more sense. Our understandings become broader and more coordinated, helping us to gain greater meaning from our experiences (Russell, 1999). The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental; it happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning but it is not sufficient. Dewey suggests that schooling needs to provide activities that engage the mind as well as the hands. Dewey called this reflective activity.
Dewey described learning as a social activity; our learning is intimately associated with our connection with peers and teachers. “Learning is contextual; we do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract land of the mind separate form the rest of our lives; we learn in relationship to what else we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears” (Dewey, 1938, pg. 38).
One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on (Dewey, 1938). The more we know, the more we can learn. Therefore, any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the learner must provide a path into the subject for the learner based on that learner’s previous knowledge. Dewey asserts that for significant learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them, try them out, play with them and use them in authentic situations (Dewey, 1916).
Modern Schooling and Learning
There is widespread concern about the failures of our schools and our society to help students learn to think more effectively, and to help them develop effective problem solving, reasoning and learning skills (Bransford, Goldman, & Vye, 1991). One area of concern is the nations poor test scores and the need to teach thinking skills (Carpenter, 1980). Research has shown poor performance on the simplest word problems even when the student had memorized facts form their textbooks (Vanderbuilt, 1990). Many argue that the current curricula of memorization of facts and the acquisition of isolated sub skills that are learned out of context result in knowledge that cannot be applied to authentic situations (Brown et al, 1989).
Alternatives to learning out of context material and fact memorization include an emphasis on generating or constructing learning around authentic tasks that often involve group discussions (Brown, et al., 1989). An authentic task is defined as the relationship between the learning and the social situation in which it occurs (Lave, Wenger, 2005, pg. 14). The practical application of the lesson is significant, purposeful, and helps the student understand how it is applied outside of the textbook. “The constructivist view of learning is a constructive process in which the learner is building an internal representation of knowledge and a personal interpretation of experience” (Duffy, & Jonassen, 1992, pg. 21). These researchers suggest that students today need to focus on learning skills that include critical thinking and problem solving, creativity and innovation, and communication and collaboration (21stcenturyskills.org). So how do we take cognitive knowledge and transfer it to practical applications?
Learning in and through Social Contexts
Lave & Wenger are social anthropologist with a strong interest in social theory, and suggests that learning is embedded within activity, context, and culture. Much of their work has focused on the re-conceiving of learning, learners, and educational institutions in terms of social practice (Wenger, 1998). In contrast with most classrooms learning activities that involve abstract knowledge, which is, and out of context, learning is situated (Lave, & Wenger, 1991). Learning often takes place at the edges of the community through participation to gain membership and Lave and Wenger (1991) call this a process of “legitimate peripheral participation.” Knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts, settings, and situations that would normally involve that knowledge. Social interaction and collaboration are essential components of situated learning; learners become involved in a “community of practice” which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired (Lave, & Wenger, 1991). As the beginner or novice moves from the periphery of a community to its center, he or she becomes more active and engaged within the culture and eventually assumes the role of an expert (Lave, et al, 1991). Situated learning is related to Vygotsky’s notion of learning through social development.
Lave and Wenger state the following important points of the situated learning theory (legitimate peripheral participation),
- Knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context, i.e., settings and applications would normally involve that knowledge.
- Learning requires social interaction and collaboration.
- Legitimate because all individuals accept the position that there are novices that are potential members of the community of practice.
- Community of practice: are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly. You can’t force this to occur.
- Peripheral because novices are around the edges of “what is the center of the action” and as they learned, gain more skills of the community of practice, they are entrusted with more important roles.
- Participation because it is through “doing” the knowledge that they actually acquire it. The knowledge is situated with the practices of the community of practice.
Summary
Learning, especially in the school setting, is often faced with tasks that do not have apparent meaning or logic and has emphasized memory rather than understanding. Constructivism is a pedagogical view that can be applied to most if not all learning goals (Duffy, & Jonassen, 1992). A constructivist environment emphasizes that each learner through his or her own learning experience constructs knowledge (Dewey, 1938). Additionally there is a focus on the authenticity in any learning environment or process results from presenting “a range of opportunities and challenges in which members of a community could assume different roles and learn through negotiation and interaction about how others perform their roles” (Allen, 1991).
Situated learning and constructivism are mutually supportive of each other. Learning is doing therefore, students need to be given activities that allow them to collaborate and utilize the information being presented in class. The discussion board is a collaborative tool that has been shown to provide an avenue for learners to evaluate, analyze and reflect on new knowledge (Friesen, 2004). Learning is successful when students can demonstrate conceptual understanding through practical application. The literature suggest that a constructivist learning theory would be most relevant when your educational goal is the transfer of cognitive knowledge into practical application.